Child marriage

Child marriage is defined as the marriage of a girl or boy before the age of 18. Child marriage is a human rights violation that refers to both formal marriages and informal unions. Formal marriage could be under civil or religious law. An informal union is one in which a couple live together and intend to have a lasting relationship but do not have a formal marriage ceremony.

Child marriage threatens girls’ lives and health. It robs them of their childhood and limits their future prospects. Girls pressed into child marriage often become pregnant while still adolescents, increasing the risk of complications in pregnancy or childbirth. These complications are the leading cause of death among older adolescent girls. Child brides are also far less likely to stay in school, limiting their future prospects. 

Despite laws against child marriage in many countries, the practice remains widespread. The world is home to 640 million child brides, including currently married girls and women who were first married in childhood, and 37 million live in the Middle East and North Africa. 

In the past 25 years, the prevalence of child marriage in the Arab region has dropped from 1 in 3 to 1 in 5 young women. Yet progress appears to have stalled in the last decade for many reasons, including the COVID-19 pandemic and increasing conflicts, climate shocks and crises.

Denial of rights

Child marriage denies girls the right to choose whom and when to marry – one of life’s most important decisions. Choosing one's partner is a major decision, one that should be made freely and without fear or coercion. On this, virtually all countries agree.

Many international agreements outlaw child marriage, including the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women. The International Conference on Population and Development in 1994 also called on countries to eliminate child marriage.

Despite near-universal commitments to end child marriage, globally 19 per cent of girls are married before age 18, an average of tens of thousands of girls every single day. Five per cent of girls are married before age 15. Girls that are married or enter informal unions early are denied the right to equality, education, and a standard of living adequate for their health and well-being and that of their family. 

Impact on a girl’s health, future and family

Child marriage directly threatens girls’ health and well-being. Marriage is often followed by pregnancy, even if a girl is not yet physically or mentally ready. In developing countries, a majority of births to adolescent girls occur within a marriage or a union. In these countries, complications from pregnancy and childbirth are the leading cause of death among adolescent girls aged 15 to 19.

Girls married as children are more likely to be exposed to sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. When girls marry, they are often forced to drop out of school so they can assume household responsibilities. Girls who leave school have worse health and economic outcomes than those who stay in school, and eventually their children fare worse as well.

Factors contributing to child marriage

Child marriage is driven by harmful social norms and gender inequality. Yet many more factors intersect to place a child at risk of marriage, including poverty, the perception that marriage will provide ‘protection’, ideas of family honour, social norms, customary or religious laws that condone the practice, inadequate legislative frameworks, and the state of a country’s civil registration system. More often than not, child marriage is the outcome of having few choices. 

The increasing number of conflicts and crises in the Arab region are placing women and girls at an increased risk of child marriage. Gender inequality is a root cause of child marriage in all contexts, yet faced with insecurity, increased risks of sexual and gender-based violence and the breakdown of rule of law, families may see child marriage as a way to deal with economic hardship, to protect girls from sexual violence or to protect the honour of the family in response to insecurity. Child marriage is also exacerbated among internally displaced people, and forced child marriage has been used as a tactic in conflicts. 

Climate change affects child marriage by increasing vulnerabilities and inequalities. Studies have found that climate shocks worsen the drivers of child marriage  by leading to people being displaced from their homes, the loss of assets and opportunities for income generation, disruption to education, declining access to sexual and reproductive health services and the creation of settings in which sexual violence and the fear of sexual violence increases. All these factors combine to push families to marry their daughters off early. 

How to end child marriage

Existing laws against child marriage should be enforced, especially when girls at risk of child marriage, or who are already married, seek protection and justice. And where it is not yet the case, the legal age of marriage should be raised to 18 without exceptions. But laws only provide the framework for action against child marriage. Practices people deem acceptable are unlikely to disappear through legislation alone.

Governments, civil society and other partners must work together to ensure girls have access to quality education, health information and services, comprehensive sexuality education and life-skills training. Girls who are able to stay in school and remain healthy enjoy a broader range of options, and they are more likely to be able to avoid child marriage. 

And, importantly, girls who are already married or in a union need to be supported. They need sexual and reproductive health services to help them avoid early pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections including HIV. Those who become pregnant need access to appropriate care throughout pregnancy, childbirth and in the post-partum period. They should be supported, if they choose, in returning to formal or non-formal education.

Together, these measures lead to more bodily autonomy for girls, their being more in control of their lives, healthier families, higher levels of gender equality and, in turn, stronger societies and more vibrant economies. No society can afford the lost opportunity, waste of talent or personal devastation that child marriage causes.

Ending child marriage could be surprisingly affordable and cost-effective, with major economic benefits arising from increased schooling that then leads to greater productivity and formal employment. In 2019, UNFPA released a joint study with the Johns Hopkins University, in collaboration with Victoria University, the University of Washington and Avenir Health, assessing the price tag to end child marriage in 68 countries that account for about 90 per cent of these marriages. Ending child marriage in these countries by 2030, researchers concluded, would cost just $35 billion – roughly $600 to spare each child bride. In the Arab region, the economic return of investing in ending child marriage was estimated across seven countries (Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Morocco, Somalia, Sudan, and Yemen) and for every $1 spent in ending child marriage in these countries, over $35 in returns can be expected. In order for these seven countries to end child marriage by 2030, an investment of an additional $3.5 billion is needed from 2022 to 2030. 

UNFPA’s role

UNFPA is committed to delivering tangible, evidence-based solutions to child marriage with an emphasis on efforts that are gender-transformative, can be scaled-up, sustained and produce measurable results. UNFPA works with governments and civil society partners, women-led organizations, faith-based organizations at all levels to promote and protect the human rights of girls including assisting with the development of sexual and reproductive health, gender and youth policies, programmes and services and to transform gender norms to end the practice of child marriage. 

UNFPA co-leads the UN Flagship initiative to end child marriage with UNICEF. The  UNFPA-UNICEF Global Programme to Accelerate Action to End Child Marriage was designed as a 15-year programme (2016–2030) to contribute to Sustainable Development Goal target 5.3, which aims to eliminate all harmful practices, including child marriage. The Global Programme targets adolescent girls (ages 10–19) at risk of child marriage or already in union, in 12 selected countries with high prevalence or high burden of child marriage: Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Ghana, India, Mozambique, Nepal, Niger, Sierra Leone, Uganda, Yemen and Zambia.

The programme promotes the rights of adolescent girls to avert marriage and pregnancy, and enables them to achieve their aspirations through education and alternative pathways. The Global Programme supports shifts in attitudes within households, empowers adolescent girls to direct their own futures, and strengthens the services that allow them to do so, including sexual and reproductive health and social protection programmes. It also addresses the underlying conditions that sustain child marriage, advocating for laws and policies that protect girls’ rights while highlighting the importance of using robust data and evidence to inform such policies.
 

Female genital mutilation

Female genital mutilation involves altering or injuring the female genitalia for non-medical reasons. Internationally recognized as a human rights violation, it is estimated that some 230 million girls and women globally have undergone some form of female genital mutilation. Although the practice is declining in the majority of countries where it is prevalent, most of these countries are also experiencing a high rate of population growth – meaning that the number of girls who undergo female genital mutilation will continue to grow if the practice continues at current levels. UNFPA estimates 68 million girls are at risk of undergoing the practice between 2015 and 2030.

In the Arab region around 50 million girls have already suffered female-genital mutilation, and the region accounts for around a quarter of all global cases. Protecting girls will take a significant push to eliminate this harmful, often deadly, practice. Coordinated and systematic efforts are needed, including engaging with whole communities and focusing on human rights and gender equality. Additionally, the sexual and reproductive health needs of women and girls who are subjected to the practice and its consequences must be urgently addressed.

What is female genital mutilation?

Female genital mutilation refers to all procedures involving partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons. It is a deeply entrenched – and deeply damaging – social and cultural norm in many places.

The practice can cause short- and long-term health complications including chronic pain, infections,, anxiety and depression, birth complications, infertility and, in the worst cases, death. It is internationally recognized as an extreme violation of the rights of women and girls.

In 2012, the United Nations General Assembly unanimously adopted the first-ever resolution against female genital mutilation, calling for intensified global efforts to eliminate the practice. In 2015, female genital mutilation was included in the Sustainable Development Goals under Target 5.3, which calls for the elimination of all harmful practices.

Yet it remains widespread. In 2023, UNFPA estimated that nearly 4.3 million girls were at risk of female genital mutilation that year. Research also suggests that, if female genital mutilation continues at current rates, an estimated 68 million girls would be subjected to this practice between 2015 and 2030 in the 25 countries where it is routinely practised and where relevant data are available. But from 2020 through 2022, COVID-19 compounded the vulnerability of girls and women at risk of female genital mutilation. The pandemic further entrenched gender inequalities, economic disparities and health risks faced by women and girls and disrupted programmes to prevent female genital mutilation and other harmful practices. UNFPA estimates that, due to COVID-19,  two million more cases of female genital mutilation could take place over the next decade if action is not scaled up.

Why is female genital mutilation still practiced?

In every society where it is practiced, female genital mutilation is a deeply entrenched social norm. In some societies, for example, it is considered a rite of passage. In others, it is seen as a prerequisite for marriage. 

Because female genital mutilation may be considered an important part of a culture or identity, it can be difficult for families to decide against having their daughters subjected to it. People who reject the practice may face condemnation or ostracism, and their daughters are often considered ineligible for marriage. As a result, even parents who do not want their daughters to undergo female genital mutilation may feel compelled to participate. 

Encouraging abandonment

Collective abandonment, in which a whole community chooses to no longer engage in female genital mutilation, is an effective way to end the practice. It ensures that no girl or family will be disadvantaged by the decision. Many experts hold that female genital mutilation will only end through collective abandonment.

The decision to collectively abandon the practice requires a process in which communities are encouraged to discuss and evaluate the traditions and beliefs that drive the practice, positive and negative effects of the practice and then discuss, reflect and reach consensus on abandonment. Issues on health and human rights  are raised in these dialogues, and local and grassroots organizations should play an important role in raising awareness and educating communities.

When communities choose to abandon female genital mutilation, they often participate in a collective public declaration to keep their girls unharmed or as perfect as they are born, such as signing and circulating a public statement or hosting festivities to celebrate the decision. Neighbouring communities are often invited to these events so they can see the successful process of abandonment, helping to build momentum for collective abandonment elsewhere

Medicalization of female genital mutilation

According to recent UNFPA estimates, around one in four girls and women between the ages of 15 and 49 have been subjected to female genital mutilation – amounting to 52 million people – by health workers. In some countries, this ratio can reach as high as three in four girls. 

Female genital mutilation can never be “safe” and there is no medical justification for the practice. Even when performed in a sterile environment by a health worker, there can be serious consequences immediately and later in life. Medicalized female genital mutilation offers those subjected to it  a false sense of safety. Health workers who perform it are violating girls’ and women’s rights to life, to physical integrity and to health as well as violating their professional code of conduct to "do no harm".

UNFPA works with the health sector and health workers, including midwives, to resist social pressure to perform female genital mutilation and to become advocates for prevention and protection in the communities they serve.

Female genital mutilation in the Arab region

Female genital mutilation is highly prevalent in a number of Arab countries. In Somalia, nearly 99 percent of girls between 5-11-years old report being cut. In Sudan, where the rates are rising, nearly three-quarters of girls are affected. In Yemen, 19% of women and girls aged 15-49 have been subjected to the practice. Many women and girls suffer through the harmful practice at the hands of a health worker. The increasing medicalization of FGM is a worrying trend in the Arab region and is particularly common in Egypt and Sudan. 

FGM is a deeply entrenched practice in the communities in which it is common. It is a deeply rooted social norm that is often falsely justified with health and religious arguments. FGM is often not considered a priority issue for policymakers in the affected countries, and even less so in times of conflict or other humanitarian crises. Situations of political and economic instability further delay the implementation of activities that focus on anti-FGM policies and laws. Some religious leaders make the case that FGM is a religiously required procedure, yet many others openly advocate for the total abandonment of FGM, citing religious texts to demonstrate that FGM is a cultural rather than a religious requirement.

At the Nairobi Summit on ICPD25 in 2019, representatives from a network of faith-based organizations from Egypt, Sudan, Djibouti, Somalia and Yemen committed to support their governments in eliminating FGM, stating that they consider FGM to be an act of violence against women and girls with no reference nor association with religious texts.

What UNFPA is doing

The UNFPA-UNICEF Joint Programme on the Elimination of Female Genital Mutilation is the largest global programme to accelerate the elimination of female genital mutilation. The Joint Programme supports holistic and integrated approaches and interventions at the global, regional, and national levels with the aim of establishing policy and legal frameworks, encouraging communities to abandon the harmful practice, providing related services, and supporting data and evidence generation to better inform advocacy and programme initiatives. 

The programme has been working in partnership with governments, civil society, communities and development partners at different levels.The Joint Programme provides direct support to 17 countries (Burkina Faso, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Kenya, Mali, Mauritania, Nigeria, Senegal, Somalia, Sudan, Uganda, and Yemen). It also has various initiatives and forums to share technical knowledge and expertise to other countries and organizations. 

UNFPA has also been undertaking various analyses that include estimating the cost and the new investments that must be made to achieve the elimination of the practice, returns from investing in ending the practice, estimating the number of girls at risk of undergoing the practice by 2030, and other related studies.